vaccine is used to produce immunity to various diseases. vaccines can effectively prevent the infection by the pathogens like viruses, bacteria etc. most commonly used vaccines are influenza vaccine , chicken pox vaccine,
hpv vaccine etc. by taking vaccines at correct time we can easily prevent the infectious diseases. simply we can say vaccine is inactivated pathogen. the term vaccine first used by Edward Jenner in 1796. vaccination is the method in which develop artificial immunity in body. immunization means stimulating the immunity power of body by using inactivated pathogens. vaccines for aids, alzhemers disease and cancer will produced near future. louis pasteur discovered the first vaccine against rabies virus.
different types of vaccinations are used now a days. pathogens are cultured in cultural medium and then killed by using formaldehyde, then apply to body. the second method, the living virus particles are injected into the body in very low virulence. in third method virus proteins are injected into the body.
One of the disadvantage of x ray radiography is superposition of images. Computed tomography technique developed in 1972. this a very sensitive technique to make the images of internal structures ,without any super positions . This method of imaging first invented by godfry housefield . he awarded nobel prize for this invention. The theoretical basis for this invention was gave by an Indian scientist gopalsamudram n ramachandran. In this technique a low dose x ray beam rotated around the body of the patient. The coming out rays are to be noted, by a sensitive detectors .in this method same body part examined in different angles .with the help of a computer the images are processed and analyzed. It can also give three dimensional views of organs. Doctors get a complete series of pictures .
Angiography
Angiography is a technique used to image the blood vessels. This technique gives the positions of block in blood vessels. The image in known as angiograph. The angiograph is taken of the organ ,and stored in a computer . a second angiograph is taken after contrast containing iodine , which is used to opaque x rays , the first image is subtracted from the second , give a clear picture of blood vessels.
In heart pumping action the atria and ventricle are contract rhythmically . The wave impulse of contraction begins every time from sa node present in the right atrium. Which means the sa node controls the heartbeat. Pacemaker is the rhythmic center of pace activity.So it is known as natural pacemaker. In some cases the impulse conduction system is interrupted , which cause irregularity in heart beat like failure of receiving the atrial impulse by ventricle and the contraction and relaxation of atria and ventricles may change.such type of patients are provided with an artificial electronic device which is known as pacemaker. The artificial pacemaker can generate electrical pulses. . the pacemaker is placed in the upper thoracic region and having a connection with the heart. This pacemaker have a pulse generator and lithium battery. The pulse generator produces electrical pulses, a wire lead which transmits the impulse .
Sonography is based on ultrasound .the ultrasound frequency ranges from 1 to 15 mhz. this high intense ultrasound waves passed through the human body, and the returning echoes are detected. The ultrasound waves pass through the homogeneous tissue without any deflection. By when a meet a another tissue is reflected back , this reflection depends on the densities of two tissues. In clinical examination the sonographer places a scan head transducer in contact with the area to be scanned. before doing this an aqueous gel is applied between the skin and scan head to the object of interest. The ultrasound waves penetrate the body , when hit on a foreign body it reflected back, at that time the transducer functions as a receiver. The echoes generated will processed with the help of a computer , converted into a video image. The time delay between sending and receiving is calculated and we can find the location of target. Sonography is much safer than radiography, because in sonography we do not use any harmful radiations. Generally sonography is used to image the adult body it can also give the images of blood vessels.diagnostic sonography another important treatment
Due to the renal failures the blood urea level increases abnormally . in such a situation an artificial kidney is used for removing excess urea from the blood . this process in known as hemodialysis. For this the blood is taken from the artery , then it is cooled to 0 degree celcius . after this the blood is mixed with anticoagulats like heparin to prevent the coagulation of blood. and then pumped into artificial kidney. The artificial kidney have number of tubes and membranes. This membrane is a semi permible membrane , which does’t allow the macromolecules to pass through it . the fluid in the tubes have some nitrogenous waste products , namely urea, uric acid etc . these smaller components are separated by dialysis . the blood coming out from this apparatus is then heated upto body temperature . then mixed with antiheparin and return back to the vein of the body. After mixing of antiheparin the blood regains its original coagulation power. Hemodialysis saves lifes of number of uremic patients.Hemodialysis Process
Fertilization is a union of male and female gametes. fertilization process is very much advanced.The semen of male consists of combination of spermatozoa and accessory fluids. When sperms are deposited in vagina, the sperms starts travel through the uterus upto oviducts. The sperm fuses with the egg at oviduct. Before fusion of sperm with the egg , the egg membrane must be brake , the chemical released by the spermatozoa will collapse the egg membrane . a healthy human ejaculate 4 ml of semen which have 80 to 100 million sperms . out of these only one of the sperm entering into the egg and fuse with it. To prevent the entering of second sperm , that is preventing polyspermy a membrane is developed around the fused sperm. The fertilization occur at the ampula of the oviduct. The structure formed after the fusion of male and female gametes known by name spindle. The spindle consists of a diploid set of chromosomes . one pair from the mother and other from the father. The spindle also known by the name zygote . the zygote undergo further cleavage .
Long distance travel may sound exciting, if only for those who are not actually doing the traveling. After all, travelers have something in common with those who are desk bound for hours- stress, from neck all the way down the back, which is where aromatherapy comes in. It’s the kind of thing that makes people say, it’s relaxing, takes away the stress of a long travel, and ‘it makes me feel pretty’.
Aromatherapy is a gentle and powerful healing treatment. It uses pure essential oils- found in different parts of plants- that positively affect our physical, emotional and mental health. These oils are made up of between 50 to 500 different chemicals that occur in nature. Certified aromatherapists usually advised a combination of massage and inhalation. For the former, a good quality carrier oil, lotion, cream or salve is used to deliver the essential oils to the areas where they are most required. For inhalation, a simmering pot, diffuser, hot tub, sauna or common cotton ball is used.
Essential oils enter our body through the skin or by smell. Molecules in the scent released by the oils are get into the blood stream either through the skin during a massage or by inhalation through the nose and lungs. To quit smoking or raise oestrogen levels in postmenopausal women for instance, medication is introduced into the body through the skin. With the help of a massage, essential oils take about half an hour to be absorbed. As for smell, its psychological changes have been well researched. Our sense of smell has, by reflex action an enormous change on the central nervous system.
The technique was developed by welhelm Einthoven in 1903 .Ecg known as electrocardiograph is and instrument used for recording the functioning of the heart . the ecg works according to the electrical signal produced by the heart. The electrical signals produced by he heart during systole and diastole are collected on a graph called electrocardiogram. In ecg several electrodes are connected to he skin to transmit the electrical activity of he heart of he ecg machine. These will completed in 3 minutes. It is safe and painless. The ecg gives the information about the rate and rhythm of he heart and the functioning of heart muscles . the ecg of man consists of p wave , ors complex and t wave. The p wave is an upward deflection in the graph which indicates the depolarization of the auricles. The ors complex is a triangular wave which give the information about the ventricular depolarization. The small t wave represents eh ventricular repolarisation. Now days the multi channel monitors are used to record ecg. The ecg is used to find the rhythm of heart , cardiac ischaemia , heart attack etc.
The transfer of tissue or organs from their natural position to another is called transplantation . by the advancement in surgery ,now possible to transplant organs such as kidney , heart , liver. Etc. mainly three types of transplantation . the are autotransplantaion, allotransplantation , xenotransplantaion. Firstly we discuss about autotransplantaion . it is the transfer of a tissue or organs from its natural position to another place of the same individual . it is also called by the name autograft. Skin transplantation is an example for this type of transplantation. In allotransplantaion , tissues or organs from one individual transfer to genetically different individual of the same species . It is also known as allograft. The third one is Xenotransplantation .in this the transfer of tissues from one species to another occars. It is also known by name Xenograft. It is not used for clinical purposes. The limitation of this technique is that the rejection of organ by the recepient’s body .this is because the recipient body treated the transplanted organ as non self .it cause immuno suppression .
X ray radiography
It one of the vital diagnostic tools , providing detailed images of dense body parts such as bones. In this technique a high intensity beam of x rays are passed though the body part to be examined . these x rays are fell on a photographic plate . the dense tissues such as bones , appeared as white and soft tissues appear as gray and air appears as black. The image is known by name x ray radiograph. For imaging bones we use ordinary x rays called plain x ray . to take images of blood vessels we use contrasting x rays .
Angiography
This is a technique used for imaging blood vessels. This is known as angiography . in this technique a dies is injected into the blood vessels to be examined . the blood flow through the arteries marked and we can find in any blockage . the high quality images are obtained by interfacing computer to this. The procedure is known as digital subtraction angiography.
